Tuesday, November 27, 2018

Applications of UV Visible Spectroscopy

An analysis by the spectrophotometric methods attains accurate and fast results with small quantities of sample. This is the most efficient tool for its compatibility and economic value in pharmaceutical analysis. Qualitative analysis has confirmed to be extremely useful in many forms of organic compounds.
Some applications of UV Visible spectroscopy are listed below. 
As an HPLC detector:
Most analytes can be analyzed by UV / visible detectors and this UV detector is used in HPLC, hence the UV detector makes the most widely used and useful LC detector.
Quantitative Analysis:
Compounds that absorb UV radiation can be used for quantitative determination based on Beer’s law to find out the unknown concentration of a sample component by the absorption spectrometry. Most organic compounds are absorbed in the range of the UV-visible spectrum.
Qualitative Analysis:
Visible and UV spectrophotometer can be utilized to identify compounds through by plotting the spectrum curve and compared with the known spectrum.
PKa value can be calculated:
Spectrophotometrically PKa value can be determined from the graph plotted at various pH values between the wavelength and absorption.
Detection of Impurities:
To determine impurities in organic molecules, UV absorption spectroscopy is a better way. Due to impurities in the sample, additional peaks can be seen and compared to standard materials. By measuring absorption at particular wavelengths, impurities can be detected
Measuring reaction rates:
The rate of reaction can also be analyzed using UV spectroscopy. By observing absorbance changes of the sample throughout the reaction the rate of reaction can be measured.


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The Basic Principle of UV Spectroscopy

The ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV) is an important method of analytical chemistry and it is one of the commonly used for the identification of chemicals and qualitative analysis. However, quantitative analysis of various inorganic and organic compounds is the most important use of UV. Principally, UV spectroscopy is associated with the interaction of light with the matter since, the light is absorbed by the substance/matter, the resultant energy content of atoms or molecules increases. The absorption of ultraviolet or visible light by an analyte will generate a specific spectrum, while ultraviolet radiation is absorbed; it results in the electrons excitation in the state of high energy from the ground state. The theory that revolves about this concept suggests that the energy absorbed by ultraviolet radiation is equivalent to the energy difference between the ground and high energy state.
UV spectrophotometer principle adheres to the Beer-Lambert Law; this law expresses that when a beam of monochromatic light is gone through a sample solution an absorbing analyte. The diminishing rate of the radiation power alongside the thickness of the sample solution is really corresponding to the incident radiation and solution concentration.
Beer-Lambert Law is expressed through this equation:
A = log (I0/I) = ECI.
It is clear from the Beer-Lambert law that the number of molecules able to absorb the light of a specified wavelength, the light absorption limit is high. This is the fundamental principle of UV spectroscopy.


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What is UV Visible Spectrophotometer

UV-Visible Spectrophotometer is one of the mainly used techniques in drug analysis. This technique used to detect the concentration of absorbed UV-visible radiation by the analyte. In the UV-VIS spectroscopy, the ratio of proportion, the ratio of the two beams intensity of light is called an ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometer. In the qualitative analysis of UV-Vis, the organic compounds can be identified using a spectrophotometer, the quantitative spectrophotometric analysis is used to detect the amount of radiation absorbed by the compound. The spectrophotometric technique is fast, simple, modest, and applies to small amounts of compounds. Beer-Lambert's law is the law that regulates quantitative spectrophotometry analysis.
Beer’s law:
It is in Simple words the absorption is proportional to concentration; this law shows the light intensity of the monochromatic radiation diminishes quickly with the number of molecules absorbed.
Lambert’s law:
This law shows the intensity of the beam of parallel monochromatic radiation diminishes quickly as it goes through the uniform thickness.
A combination of these two laws generates Beer-Lambert law.
The region of UV -Visible and infrared.
                    Region                    Wavelength (Range)
                Far-ultraviolet                  10-200 nm
                Near ultraviolet                200-400 nm
                Visible                                400-750 nm
                Near-infrared                   0.75- 2.2 μm
                Mid-infrared                     2.5-50 μm
                Far infrared                       50-1000 μm
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Applications of Emission Spectroscopy

The spectroscopy is used as a method to analyze atom and molecular structures. The large number of wavelengths released by these devices allows for thorough study of their structures, including ground electron configurations and different excited states. Spectroscopic instruments rely on photographic identities are mainly functions for qualitative analysis. Photoelectric devices get broad access to the regular quantitative analysis of a limited number of elements. Photographic emission spectroscopy allows seventy elements detection by the brief excitation of some mg of the sample. The spectrographic method's sensitivity is based on the instrument employed the type of excitation and the nature and quantity of the sample.
Applications of emission spectroscopy are as follows.
Quantitative analysis
Qualitative analysis
Identification of elements 
Quantitative applications 
Monitor traces impurity levels in materials
It is ideal for a multi-elemental analysis
It is used in the trace metals in a variety of sample matrices analysis
Preliminary testing of samples (unknown)

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Advantage and disadvantage of IR spectroscopy

Spectroscopy is a popular analytical technique for detecting functional groups in the molecule and it studies the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter.
The advantage of IR spectroscopy:
1. Qualitative and quantitative analysis: One of the key advantages of Infrared spectroscopy is without destroying the sample it can provide qualitative and quantitative chemical information. 
2. Sample Preparation: The major advantage of infrared spectroscopy is that the sample does not need any particular preparation. 
3. Sensitive and Time-saving technique: IR spectroscopy is very sensitive, hence it required minimum sample quantity to scan the sample spectrum and it takes a few seconds to scan a whole range of IR. 
4. It's versatility: Solid, liquid, gases and semisolid samples can be analyzed by the IR spectroscopy. 
5. Easy for interpretation: The Peak intensities, peak positions, peak widths, shapes, and functional groups provide all helpful information. 
 The disadvantage of IR spectroscopy:
  • Disadvantages include sometimes difficult handling procedures and maintenance of the sample cells. 
  • There are no infrared spectra in atoms or monatomic ions, hence it cannot analyses. 
  • To use infrared spectroscopy is that it requires very sensitive and properly tuned devices. 
  • The sample having aqueous solutions and complex mixtures are complicated to analyze by infrared spectroscopy. 

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Advantages and disadvantages of FTIR spectroscopy

Most applications of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy are in areas where the low radiant energy is a severe problem. Therefore, the advantage of interferometric systems provides important development in the signal-to-noise ratio met with grating or prism instruments. An additional advantage is that the interferometer optics give a lot of energy throughput compared to the dispersive optics. The higher energy achieving the detector with FTIR instruments regularly results in an added to sensitivity.
The FTIR method does not give the advantage of a decent quality grating spectrophotometer. Also, it is suffering from the comparison in case of high initial cost and adequate maintenance problems. The latter arises as the quality of an FTIR spectrum degrades with equipment maladjustment and faster than a grating spectrum.
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Advantages and disadvantages of mass spectrometry
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Applications of FTIR spectroscopy

Fourier Transform Infra-red Spectroscopy (FTIR) is one of the essential technology used the identification of functional group and structure elucidation of an analyte. This technique is highly sensitive, responsive, time-saving, and with a selection of sample technology.
Here are some applications of FTIR are as follows.
FTIR used in the Environmental analysis
FTIR used in the Food analysis 
FTIR used in the Pharmaceutical analysis 
FTIR used in the Forensic analysis 
FTIR used in Formulation development 
FTIR used in the verification of the quality of materials 
FTIR used in Deformulation of rubber and polymer 
FTIR used in the Quantitative analysis 
FTIR used in the Qualitative analysis 
FTIR used in the Identification of unknown samples 
FTIR used to Identify the contaminants, use in Microanalysis 
FTIR used in Paint industries 
FTIR used in the Analysis of coatings and thin film 
FTIR used in Laminate industries 
FTIR used in Toxicity screening 
FTIR used in Impurity screening 
FTIR used in organic and inorganic samples 
FTIR is used in the Metals industries 
FTIR used in Beauty products as well as for its quality control purpose. 


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What is FTIR Spectroscopy

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) is used in a quantitative and qualitative analysis of inorganic and organic compounds. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy identifies the functional groups of a molecule or component by the producing of the infrared absorption spectrum. The spectrum shows the detailed profile of analytes, a distinctive molecular fingerprint that can use for scan and screen of variance components. FTIR instrument is an efficient analytical technique for detecting characterizing the covalent bonding information and functional groups.
Dispersive infrared spectrophotometers and Fourier transform spectrometers are the types of instruments are available for IR Spectroscopy. It consists of a source of IR, an interferometer, a sample component, a detector and a data handling/analyzing system. The source of IR generates the radiation which passes the sample through the interferometer and the detector can detect the same.
Detectors of FTIR:
Below types of detectors are used in FTIR Spectroscopy
1. Thermal detector
2. Pyroelectric detector
3. Photoconducting detector


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Monday, October 22, 2018

Principle of column chromatography

The column chromatography is a broadly used technique for the separation or purification of the sample components. Solute adsorption of solution through a stationary phase and separates the mixture into each analyte, it depends on the affinity between the mobile phase and the stationary phase. The molecules which are less affinity towards the stationary phase early separated and molecules have more affinity which separated later. The mobile phase and stationary phase are the two phases of column chromatography in which the mobile phase is liquid and solid stationary phase is used. The sample mixture travels through the stationary phase with the mobile phase and separates the sample based on the affinity of each component toward the silica. The wet and dry method used for the preparation of the column.
Dry method:
In the dry method, the column is filled with the dry silica, and the mobile phase passes through it till silica is properly wet and settled. In this method of column chromatography, the column should always wet with the solvent until the end of the work.
Wet method:
In the wet method slurry of silica and solvent is first made and then using a funnel is inserted on the column it also needs to settle and wet until the end.
In some applications, different types of column chromatography such as adsorption chromatography, ion-exchange chromatography, partition chromatography, and gel chromatography are used, and they operate under the same principle of column chromatography (adsorption).


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Saturday, October 20, 2018

Degradation Kinetics of Drugs in Pharmaceutical Substances

The pharmaceuticals degradation reactions occur in the chemical in nature and at limited rates. Temperature, Solvent, radiation energy, pH of the medium, the presence of a catalyst, and the concentration of reactants are the factors which are having an effect on these reactions. The sequence of reaction is the attribute in the way in which rate of reaction depends on reactant concentration. To make certainly enhanced stability prophecy, it is significant to recognize the limitations of experimental heat obtained by activation values are critical. To calculate the degradation rates at each pH value for dissimilar temperatures, the heat of activation should be obtained for all the bimolecular rate constants concerned in the rate pH profile.
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Pharmaceutical Impurities Arise During Storage

Many impurities may arise during shipment or shelf life of drug products. Therefore, to perform the stability studies are important to evaluate, predict, and make sure the product safety. Stability in sample package, stability in the marketing package, the stability of the formulation, and stability in delivery package, These are all considered for the stability of the drug product and it is significant to make sure that each has to know the significance of stability studies. The impurity related to the fall is to determine how many potential impurities are actually formed in the process of manufacturing and which is under the storage conditions. Throughout the development stage, this information can be utilized to process to modify in an attempt to reduce the impurities. Also, the stability characteristics information can be utilized for packaging, storage and environmental conditions of drug substance so that unacceptable degradation can be reduced or eliminated.

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