Chrominfo

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

Theoretical plates in HPLC

In chromatography, a sample is dissolved in the mobile phase, which can be solid, gas or liquid. The mobile phase travels through a stationary phase which is immiscible and immobile. Phases are selected such that the analytes of the sample have dissimilar solubility in each phase. A molecule that takes more time to travel than the molecule which is not highly soluble in the stationary phase, but it is highly soluble in the mobile phase. In the form of this inequality in mobility, sample molecules separate from each other while traveling through a stable phase.

Any chromatographic column doesn’t include any physical plates that can be periodically measured for the efficiency of the column. The plates are produced throughout the elution of molecules through the column and it has information regarding the separation process, primarily the peak dispersion. This is a simply measured quantity utilize to take column properties. The number of theoretical plates is an index that is used to calculate the effectiveness and performance of columns. At a specific retention time, they are an indirect measure of the peak width for a peak. The number of theoretical plates (N) in chromatography can be calculated as N=16(tR /W) 2, where tR= retention time and W= peak width. The Column efficiency is a function of dimensions of the column, system flow rate, solute, and retention time (RT) of the solute. The limit of the theoretical plate (Efficiency) is N > 2000.

What are the causes of broad peaks in HPLC?

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Factors affecting column efficiency in HPLC

The column or stationary phase selection is the most significant advance in analytical method development. Without a column, which is stable and high performance, the development of a reproducible and rugged method is not possible. The selection of the column is done based on information about the nature and analysis of solutes. Usually, a lengthy column gives improved separation because of higher theoretical plate numbers. A column with a 5-µm particle size provides good reproducibility, efficiency, and reliability.

The column efficiency is reported as the number of theoretical plates. The efficiency of the column in HPLC is dependent on various factors; some factors that affect column efficiency in HPLC are given below.

The activity of the adsorbent
Column length
The dimension of the column
The flow rate of the system
Packing of the column
Particle diameter
Particle size distribution
Quality of solvents
The temperature of the column

Factors affecting column efficiency in column chromatography

Column chromatography is the basic and oldest separation technique for separating compounds according to their polarity. Here are mentioned some factors affecting column efficiency in column chromatography.

Column Packing:

Column packing in resolution is yet another significant factor, appropriate column packing is extremely necessary to achieve better results.

The particle size of the adsorbent:

This is also significant factor in the improved separation, if the size of the particles decreases, the separation is improved.

The dimension of the column:

There are different dimensions column are available for the separation, depending on the process, there is a need to select the appropriate column dimensions. Width ratio, height, and length are significant factors, increasing the column length resulting in better separation.

Solvents:

The solvents to be used should be compatible with the columns and the matrix. Usually, a solvent in column chromatography is used with less viscosity, as the viscosity can influence the flow rate of the solvent system and which affects the separation of the component.

Flow Rate:

Changing the flow rate can also affect the column efficiency and it needs to separate the analytes with an appropriate flow rate.

The temperature of the column:

Temperature is also a vital factor in chromatographic separation because some chromatographic columns are damaged at higher temperatures and proteins can also, be degraded at high temperatures. So maintain the suitable temperature to improve the efficiency of column chromatography.

Equilibration and column washing:

Equilibration and washing of the column can also affect efficiency.

These are the key factors that can affect resolution in column chromatography.

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Factors affecting resolution in chromatography

Resolution:
The resolution of elution is a quantitative measurement that how two peak peaks can be separated into a chromatographic separation. It is defined as the dissimilarity in the RT among two peaks, which is divided by the combined width of the elution peaks.

The resolution in chromatography is calculated by the equation below.

Rs = 2(t2-t1)/w1+w2

The equation shows that t1 and t2 are the retention time of components first and second simultaneously, while w1 and w2 are bandwidth at the base.

The equation of the resolution specifies that the resolution can be affected by three significant parameters.

Separation factor (Selectivity): the chromatographic system can differentiate chemically amongst sample analytes.

Efficiency: The efficiency in chromatography is calculating the dispersion of the sample the component band as it passes through the HPLC column and system.

Capacity factor (k) (Retention factor): The capacity factor is calculating the retention of a sample component on the column.

Factors affecting column efficiency in column chromatography

Thursday, June 27, 2019

What are the health benefits of vitamin K?

To keep the body healthy, we need a different kind of vitamins. Vitamins are necessary for the development of enough amounts of proteins, minerals, carbohydrates, and fiber. When it is too much or less, there are some side effects on the body. They require our body to be in very small quantities to regularize the body function. Vitamin K is essential organic ingredients that our body cannot form therefore it is very significant to take them in daily meals. If the amount of Vitamin K is reduced into the body, then the quantity of Prothrombin is also reduced. Despite the high amount of vitamin k, there is trouble like irritability, difficulty breathing, weakness, in the body, lack of appetite and tension.

Vitamin K proves to be very beneficial in blood clotting. Calcium does not accumulate in the arteries due to Vitamin K and also the bone becomes stronger. Vitamin K is needed in the body to make blood clot in any human body because of this the process of bleeding is stopped when the injury occurs. Vitamin K is available in all green leafy vegetables, it is also rich in cauliflower it also gives iron, protein, calcium, carbohydrate, chromium, vitamin a, vitamin c and Vitamin K and cauliflower also have antioxidant properties. Vitamin K available in the cabbage, kiwi, blueberries, capsicum, curd, grapes, cheese, green tea, green vegetables, some fruits, fish, eggs, and chicken also contains the properties of vitamin K.

Here are mention some health benefits of vitamin K.

Protect against heart diseases
Vitamin K is very helpful in blood clotting
It assists to minimize and heal bruises quickly
Give protecting effect against the certain cancers
Vitamin K reduces the dark under eye circles
Prevents wrinkles and improve skin
Improve insulin sensitivity
It is useful for the treatment of Vitamin K deficiency
Vitamin K protects bones and reduces the risk of osteoporosis

What are the benefits of vitamin E?

Vitamin E oil is nutrient as well as an antioxidant. Vitamin E found only in plant foods includes certain vegetables, oils, grains, corn, pumpkin seed, nuts, wheat germ, fruits, and some dairy products. It’s also accessible as a supplement. Vitamin E is crucial for the strong immune system as well as for healthy skin and healthy eyes. Vitamin E is also essential for the normal function of the reproductive system, vitamin E as a supplement is becoming more popular as antioxidants.

These are the substances that defend our cells from damage. Vitamin E is used to treat vitamin E deficiency that is rare, like chronic diarrhea, greasy stools, and the inability to secrete bile. Some people are using vitamin E for the prevention of heart diseases and blood vessels. Vitamin E is also used for the treatment of diabetes. It is best for preventing cancer, mainly lung cancer and oral cancer caused by smoking. Vitamin E is best for the skin to prevent it from aging; it also nourishes your skin and makes our nerves stronger.

Let’s check some benefits of vitamin E

Vitamin E has a natural anti-aging properties
Vitamin E protects from skin cancer.
Vitamin E used to treat scars
Vitamin E makes healthy hair
Vitamin E keeps cholesterol level balance
Vitamin E protects your cells from damage
Vitamin E treats sunburns
Vitamin E rejuvenated the body
Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant

What are the benefits of vitamin D?

Vitamin D is essential for bone health. It is fat-soluble and naturally present in only some foods like fatty fish, mushrooms, cheese, beef liver, milk, orange juice, soy drinks, yogurt, etc.and it also available as a nutritional supplement. Vitamin D obtained from the sun exposure, it is produced endogenously as the ultraviolet rays of sunlight smack the skin and generate Vitamin D. Vitamin D helps to absorb phosphorus and calcium both are must for the formation of bone.

As per the research have another benefit too like Vitamin D is also protected from colds and depression. It is used for the prevention and treatment of rickets, weak bones, bone pain, hyperparathyroidism, osteogenesis imperfecta muscle weakness, premenstrual syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, bronchitis, asthma, and disease of tooth, gum, etc.

Headache, loss of appetite, weakness, high or low blood pressure, dry mouth, kidney stones, metallic taste, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, sleepiness, and others are the side effects of Vitamin D due to take too much quantity.

Here are mentioned some health benefits of Vitamin D.

Keep bones healthy and stronger
Keep healthy teeth
Vitamin D decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease
Vitamin D for a strong immune system
Vitamin D prevents rickets and osteomalacia
Vitamin D is helpful to brain function and its development
It reduced the risk of flu
vitamin D might play a significant role in regulating mood
It supports the health of the brain, nervous system, and immune system.

What are the health benefits of vitamin C?

Vitamin C is also known as ascorbic acid, it is one of the safe and effective nutrients rich in fruits and vegetables. Ascorbic acid is a water-soluble vitamin work as a powerful antioxidant in the body and maintaining connective tissue like blood vessels, bones, and skin. Vitamin C has antioxidant properties that can assist to regenerate the other antioxidants in the body. It gets better the absorption of iron and plays an essential role to maintain the connective tissue and wound healing. It also helps to delay the harmful effects of free radicals in the body and skin.

Vitamin C is easily obtained from the foods, since many fruits and vegetables contain Vitamin C. Best sources of Vitamin C include broccoli, apples, papaya, strawberries, pineapple, mango, cantaloupe, kiwi, citrus fruits like lemons, limes, oranges, spinach, red bell peppers, asparagus, watermelon, cereal, grains, berries, cabbage, watermelon, cauliflower, honeydew, potatoes, and tomatoes.

If your daily consumption of Vitamin C is below the recommended dose, then it can cause Vitamin C deficiency (Scurvy). Bleeding gums, swelling of the gums, sluggish wound healing, dry, scaly skin, dry, splitting hair, fatigue, weight loss, joint pain, bruising, weaken the immune system, gingivitis, frequent nose bleeds, lots of Vitamin C supplements can cause urinary acidification, diarrhea, and can cause iron overload, etc. are the sign and symptom.

Let’s check some health benefits of Vitamin C.

Prevents from scurvy
Vitamin C is a powerful antioxidant
Vitamin C helps to repair and regenerate tissues
Vitamin C helps repair wounds
Protect against heart disease
Protect against cardiovascular disease
Provide strong immunity
Prevents from heart diseases
Heal lead toxicity
Reduce the symptoms of asthma
Good for healthy hair and nails
Lowering the blood pressure

What are the benefits of vitamin B12?

Vitamin B12 also called as cobalamin, vitamin B12 is the most complicated and largest structurally vitamin, it is naturally present in some foods. It dissolves in water and passes through the bloodstream. Up to four years the human body can store vitamin B12 and any excess or unnecessary vitamin B12 is excreted through the urine. Vitamin B12 is required for the proper formation of red blood cell and neurological function. It helps to maintain the energy levels, prevents memory loss, neurodegenerative disease, and improves heart health, well for healthy skin and hair. It also keeps a healthy nervous and cardiovascular system.

Animal foods are one of the best sources of vitamin B12. Vitamin B12 is naturally found in fish, eggs, poultry, meat, milk, and milk products, salmon; vitamin B12 is normally not present in plant foods.

Poor memory, anxiety and mood swings/depression, dizziness, muscle aches, poor appetite, difficulty breathing, heart palpitations, feeling tired or unfocused, poor dental health, nausea, and abdominal cramping is the most common symptoms of the deficiency. Taking adequate cobalamine/vitamin B12 can help you to avoid deficiency.

Let’s check some health benefits of vitamin B12.

Provide good immunity
Prevents memory loss
Keep healthy gastrointestinal tract
Improves heart health
Keep a healthy nervous system
Maintains body weight
Maintain energy levels
Good for healthy skin

What are the health benefits of vitamin B6?

Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble vitamin it’s also called pyridoxine. It belongs to a vitamin B family. It’s significant for physical and psychological functions. They are mainly recognized for keeping a healthy nervous system, healthy metabolism, liver function, nerve function, eye health skin health.

Vitamin B6 is naturally found in many foods like bananas, brewer’s yeast, cereal grains, fortified cereals spinach, carrots, peas, nuts, beans, sunflower seeds, potatoes, Amaranth Grain, legumes, milk, cheese, eggs, fish, chickpeas. The main deficiency of Vitamin B6 can lead to peripheral neuropathy. Other deficiency causes such as irritability, Changes in mood, Confusion, anxiety and depression, fatigue, Muscle pains and Worsening symptoms of anemia.
Here are mentioned some health benefits of Vitamin B6.

Vitamin B6 maintains a healthy nervous system.
Vitamin B6 Maintains Healthy Blood Vessels
Vitamin B6 Protects Eye Health
Vitamin B6 Reduce Symptoms of Rheumatoid Arthritis
Vitamin B6 Maintain flawless skin.
Vitamin B6 prevents from Hair Loss
Strengthens Immune System
Maintaining the level of hormones
Prevent from depression
Improve your cognitive function

What are the health benefits of vitamin B5?

The vitamin is one of the important vitamins that the uses regularly by the body. Vitamin B5 is known as pantothenic acid, it is water-soluble vitamin and common in most foods. Pantothenic acid is significant to properly utilize the proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids and also it helps to generate the energy through breaking down the fats and carbohydrates. It also helps to keep healthy hair, skin, liver, and eyes.

Vitamin B5 can be found in chicken liver, sunflower seeds, salmon, cabbage, soybeans, tomatoes, corn, wheat, broccoli, peanut molasses, mushrooms, collard greens, cauliflower, nuts, milk, yogurt, fish, chicken, egg yolk, and brewer’s yeast. These are the best source of vitamin B5.

The burning foot syndrome is the most common symptom of vitamin B5 deficiency and other symptoms of vitamin B5 include muscle cramps, plantar fasciitis, and fatigue, hypoglycemia, contraction of muscles, vomiting, abnormal skin developments, anemia, and insomnia.

Here are mentioned some health benefits of vitamin B5.

Relieves stress
Stronger immune system
May help with wound healing
Lower LDL cholesterol
To help regulate the release of hormones
Protect from pigmentation of hair
It used in skin care
Prevention from rheumatoid arthritis
Keeping the heart in normal
Energize the body
Responsible for good memory
Responsible for healthy blood vessel

What are the health benefits of vitamin B2?

Vitamin B2 also called riboflavin; it is a water-soluble the vitamin that is essential daily for the human body, as it does not remain in the body. Vitamin B2 is an important vitamin that acts as an antioxidant in the human body and by converting the carbs to sugar and create energy. It is important for maintaining tissues absorbing other nutrients and breaking food components.

The lacking of riboflavin in the body can adversely affect the metabolism of fat, carbohydrate, and protein. Riboflavin deficiency can include anemia, sore throat, nerve damage, inflamed mouth and tongue, depression, mouth ulcers, fatigue, cheilitis, swelling of mucous membranes, a sluggish metabolism, mouth or lip sores, skin inflammations, and skin disorders, etc. It may be as the intestines cannot absorb vitamins properly.

Food groups such as riboflavin's richest food sources include dairy foods, meat, fish, eggs, fortified cereals, yeast extract, certain seeds and nuts, green leafy vegetables, beans, legumes, plant foods, and grain products.

Here are mentioned some health benefits of vitamin B2.

Prevent from migraines
Keep healthy blood cells
Helps to keep a healthy eye
Can help prevent and treat anemia
Essential for effective healing
Keep a healthy liver
Provides antioxidant properties
Defends against cancer
Protects healthy hair and skin
Helps to increase energy levels

Vitamin B1 deficiency symptoms

Vitamin B1, which is also known to as thiamine, is the coenzyme use of the body to metabolize food for the energy and for keeping good nerve function and heart. Thiamine / Vitamin B1is use to the digestion and extraction of energy from foods that you eat.

Thiamin or Vitamin B1 is responsible for better digestion, efficient brain function, healthy muscles, healthy heart, and quality sleep. Thiamin or Vitamin B1 is also used in digestive problems such as ongoing diarrhea, ulcerative colitis, and poor appetite. Also Effective for Metabolic disorders, Brain disorder due to thiamine deficiency, Thiamine deficiency Beriberi, Weight loss, and anorexia are the vitamin B1 deficiency symptoms, it may be mental problems, weakness in Muscles, and cardiovascular symptoms may occur.

Some items specified below are the best sources of Thiamine or Vitamin B1 and therefore you must be taking in your diet to prevent from thiamine deficiency.
Nutritional Yeast, Lean Pork, Fish, Lentils, Nuts, Seaweed, Brussels, Sprouts, Sunflower Seeds, Asparagus, Macadamia Nuts, Mung Beans, Black Beans, legumes, Seeds and Green Split Peas.

Tuesday, June 25, 2019

What are the health benefits of vitamin A?

Vitamin A deficiency can lead to blindness and viral infection may increase, however, this is a major cause of blindness in children’s. vitamin A is hypersensitivity can cause jaundice, lack of appetite, nausea, vomiting, hair loss irritability if overconsumption. vitamin a is a powerful antioxidant that responsible for sharp vision, strong bones, healthy nails, young looking skin, beautiful hair and support the immune function.

Vitamin A can be naturally found in many vegetables and fruits like citrus fruit, carrot, vegetables, parsley, spinach, sweet potato, cantaloupe, carrots, lettuce, sweet red pepper, butternut squash, broccoli, spinach, apricot, papaya, mango, tangerine and milk, fish, eggs, are also a good source of vitamin A.

Poor eye health, night blindness, respiratory infections, delayed growth in children, premature skin damage, bumpy skin, are the symptoms of vitamin A deficiency.

Here are mentioned some health benefits of Vitamin A.

Vitamin A provides a healthy eye vision
Vitamin A prevents blindness and vision loss
Better protects from viral and bacterial infections
Vitamin A has antioxidant properties
Improve the overall skin health
Reduces the risk of acne
Promote a healthy immune response
Protect reproductive system
Vitamin A has essential for effectual healing
Vitamin A is significant for healthy bone growth

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What are the health benefits of vitamin K?
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Sunday, June 23, 2019

Difference between reversed phase and normal phase chromatography

The high-performance liquid chromatography is also known as high-pressure liquid chromatography. It is used to separate, identify, and quantify each component based on their polarity. The HPLC system consists of a column, injector, UV/VIS or PDA detector, pump, degasser, and reservoir, etc. There are different types of HPLC chromatography are available based on their composition and method of separation. It includes reverse phase chromatography, normal phase chromatography, size-exclusion chromatography, and ion-exchange chromatography is available.
In RP-HPLC the stationary phase is polar and the mobile phase is non-polar, whereas in NP-HPLC the stationary phase is non-polar and the mobile phase is polar. This is the key difference between reversed phase and normal phase HPLC.

Normal phase chromatography:

In the very non-polar environment, the hydrophilic analytes will interact with each other. In the mobile phase, the hydrophilic molecule will move towards adsorb outside and inside a particle if the surface is also hydrophilic. Increasing the polarity of the mobile phase will reduce adsorption and finally, the sample molecules will elute off the column. This occurrence is called a normal phase chromatography. This is a very potent technique and it is used mostly as an analytical technique in analytical chemistry.
Normal phase HPLC systems are parallel to the flash-column chromatography
A silica stationary phase is eluted with a non-polar solvent or a fairly non-polar solvent mixture. In RP-chromatography, only organic solvents are used.
In the normal phase, non-polar analytes elute rapidly as compared to polar analytes.

Reversed-Phase Chromatography:

The work of this technique is the opposite of the normal phase. Reducing the polarity of the mobile phase by adding more organic solvents decreases the hydrophobic interaction between solid support and solute, resulting in desorption. The molecules have more hydrophobic takes more time on the solid support and the more organic solvent concentrations necessary for the promotion of desorption.
The reversed phase is the works opposite of normal-phase chromatography.
With a polar solvent mixture, a non-polar stationary phase is eluted.
In the reverse phase, polar molecules elute rapidly as compared to non-polar analytes.

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